The film follows Catherine de' Medici (Josephine Crowell) plotting the massacre, coercing her son King Charles IX (Frank Bennett) to sanction it. [32] It seems unlikely any such orders came from the king, although the Guise faction may have desired the massacres. The Council of Trent (meets 1545-1563) C. Renewed power for the Roman Inquisition By focusing on describing the political and religious context for the massacre at the beginning, the author demonstrates the severity of the event. [31] In most of them, the killings swiftly followed the arrival of the news of the Paris massacre, but in some places there was a delay of more than a month. Report to the Venetian senate on the wounding of the admiral / Giovanni Michiel (1572) -- 17. But kill them all! [11], In the years preceding the massacre, Huguenot political rhetoric had for the first time taken a tone against not just the policies of a particular monarch of France, but monarchy in general. This change was soon picked up by Huguenot writers, who began to expand on Calvin and promote the idea of the sovereignty of the people, ideas to which Catholic writers and preachers responded fiercely. 31. [90], Holt, notable for re-emphasising the importance of religious issues, as opposed to political/dynastic power struggles or socio-economic tensions, in explaining the French Wars of Religion, also re-emphasised the role of religion in the St Bartholomew's Day Massacre. Useful pedagogic aids include headnotes and gloss notes to the documents, a list of major figures, a chronology of key events, questions for consideration, a selected bibliography, and an index. King Charles IX of France was Catherine's second son to sit on the . While the Queen Mother was eating dinner, Protestants burst in to demand justice, some talking in menacing terms. Painting of the Saint Bartholomew's Day massacre in Paris / Franois Dubois -- 20. Traditionally believed to have been instigated by Queen Catherine de' Medici, the mother of King Charles IX,[2] the massacre started a few days after the marriage on 18 August of the king's sister Margaret to the Protestant King Henry III of Navarre. To which is added, the Description of a New Blazing World 567, Ren Descartes From Discourse on Method and Meditations on First Philosophy 575, Isaac Newton From Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy 579, Illustration from Metamorphosis Insectorum Surinamensium (1705) 581, John Locke From An Essay Concerning Human Understanding 583, A rich, relevant collection of primary sources at an exceptional value, James Brophy is the Francis H. Squire Professor of History specializing in modern European history at the University of Delaware. Brad Pennington Western Civ Chapter 14: Giovanni Michiel from A Venetian Ambassador's Report on the St. Bartholomew's Related Documents (Brophy reader) Political Responses . The Vincentian ambassador in Washington, D. C. is the official representative of the Government in the Kingstown to the Government of the United States. Term Richard Verstegan, Horrible Cruelties of the Huguenots in France, 1587 . [48], Among the slain were the philosopher Petrus Ramus, and in Lyon the composer Claude Goudimel. King from 1556 to 1598. Staunch Catholics were shocked by the return of Protestants to the court, but the queen mother, Catherine de' Medici, and her son, Charles IX, were practical in their support of peace and Coligny, as they were conscious of the kingdom's financial difficulties and the Huguenots' strong defensive position: they controlled the fortified towns of La Rochelle, La Charit-sur-Loire, Cognac, and Montauban. Gaspard de Coligny a Huguenot leader, was the trigger that made the events of St. Bartholomews Day Massacre in 1572. The Venetian government refused to allow the work to be printed there, and it was eventually published in Rome in 1574, and in the same year quickly reprinted in Geneva in the original Italian and a French translation.[70]. The Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre by Franois Dubois. The Catholic Reformation A. Ignatius of Loyola & the Society of Jesus B. The attempt on Admiral Colignys life four days later failed; he was only wounded. 31. Language links are at the top of the page across from the title. Component procedures may authorize DoD Governmentwide Commercial Purchase Card Ordering Officers to make purchases up to the simplified acquisition threshold in which three of the following cases? The following other wikis use this file: Usage on af.wikipedia.org Bartolomeusnag; Catharina de' Medici; Usage on ar.wikipedia.org ), p. 91. [75] By this period the Massacre was being widely used by Voltaire (in his Henriade) and other Enlightenment writers in polemics against organized religion in general. 1,293 solutions. In part this was led by an apparent change in stance by John Calvin in his Readings on the Prophet Daniel, a book of 1561, in which he had argued that when kings disobey God, they "automatically abdicate their worldly power" a change from his views in earlier works that even ungodly kings should be obeyed. Henry IV and the Edict of Nantes (1598). How Did the Massacre of St. Bartholomews Day Start? History 104 / January 16, 2013 Charles was persuaded to approve of the scheme, and, on the night of August 23, members of the Paris municipality were called to the Louvre and given their orders. He stresses that the city was on the verge of revolt. Ostara publications. [89] Some blame the complete esteem with which the sovereign's office was held, justified by prominent French Roman Catholic theologians, and that the special powers of French Kings "were accompanied by explicit responsibilities, the foremost of which was combating heresy". The common people began to hunt Protestants throughout the city, including women and children. The murder of thousands of French Protestants by Catholics in August 1572 influenced not only the subsequent course of France's civil wars and state building, but also patterns of international alliance and long-standing cultural values across Europe. St. Bartholomew's Day massacre; File:Giorgio Vasari San Bartolomeo.jpg; File usage on other wikis. The massacre caused a "major international crisis". This traditional interpretation has been largely abandoned by some modern historians including, among others, Janine Garrisson. 154, The Jewish Encounter with Hellenism: The Maccabees' Rebellion 161, Chapter 5 The Civilization of Ancient Rome 169, A Mummy from the Time of the roman empire (100 C.E.) 32. 34. Initially the coup d'tat of the duke of Anjou was a success, but Catherine de' Medici went out of her way to deprive him from any power in France: she sent him with the royal army to remain in front of La Rochelle and then had him elected King of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Shortly after this decision, the municipal authorities of Paris were summoned. 32. Paperback. 1. 3. Learn how to enable JavaScript on your browser, Perspectives from the Past: Primary Sources in Western Civilizations / Edition 7 available in The Catholic Encyclopedia of 1913 was still ready to endorse a version of this view, describing the massacres as "an entirely political act committed in the name of the immoral principles of Machiavellianism" and blaming "the pagan theories of a certain raison d'tat according to which the end justified the means". Get a Britannica Premium subscription and gain access to exclusive content. Anonymous, A German Print of the Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre . D. C. and Kingstown established diplomatic relations when St. Vincent and the Grenadines Ambassador Hudson Kemul Tannis presented his credentials Milton Cato: Ronald Reagan: December 7, 1981: For a better shopping experience, please upgrade now. [101] Millais was inspired to create the painting after seeing Meyerbeer's Les Huguenots. Some cities unaffected by the violence nevertheless witnessed a sharp decline in their Huguenot population. According to 10 United States Code 2784, which two of the following could result from a Governmentwide Commercial Purchase Card Program violation? 2013, St Bartholomew's Day Massacre in the Provinces, Learn how and when to remove this template message, "From Marriage to Massacre: The Louvre in August 1572", "Gaspard II de Coligny, seigneur de Chtillon | French admiral and Huguenot leader | Britannica", "Le massacre de la Saint-Barthlemy: l'obsession de la souillure hrtique", The History of Terrorism: From Antiquity to Al Qaeda, The Cambridge Modern History Volume III: Wars of Religion, Russia self-condemned, secret and inedited documents connected with Russian history and diplomacy, "Vigil Address of the Holy Father John Paul II", "The Doctor Who Transcripts The Massacre of St Bartholomew's Eve", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=St._Bartholomew%27s_Day_massacre&oldid=1151357161, Articles incorporating a citation from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia with Wikisource reference, Articles incorporating text from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia with Wikisource reference, Short description is different from Wikidata, Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from August 2020, Articles with unsourced statements from April 2010, Articles needing additional references from November 2017, All articles needing additional references, Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference, France articles missing geocoordinate data, Articles missing coordinates without coordinates on Wikidata, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0. Beside this, the rivalries between the leading families re-emerged. Take notes, add highlights, and download our mobile-friendly e-books. Useful pedagogic aids include headnotes and gloss notes to the documents, a list of major figures, a chronology of key events, questions for consideration, a selected bibliography, and an index. The future Pope Gregory served as a legate to Philip II of Spain, being sent by Pope Pius V to investigate the Cardinal of Toledo. That novel has been translated into English and was made first into a commercially successful French film in 1954, La reine Margot (US title "A Woman of Evil"), starring Jeanne Moreau. Leonard Sachs appeared as Admiral Coligny and Joan Young played Catherine de' Medici. II. [20] Fears of Huguenot reprisals grew. Massacre of St. Bartholomew's Day, massacre of French Huguenots (Protestants) in Paris on August 24/25, 1572, plotted by Catherine de' Medici and carried out by Roman Catholic nobles and other citizens. 2. This play was translated into English, with some adaptations, as The Massacre by the actress and playwright Elizabeth Inchbald in 1792. [96], One historian puts forward an analysis of the massacre in terms of social anthropology the religious historian Bruce Lincoln. Elizabeth restores the Church of England (1558- ) [88] In the previous ten years there had already been three outbreaks of civil war, and attempts by Protestant nobles to seize power in France. 54, Herodotus From The Histories: Manners and Customs of the Scythians 55, From The Babylonian Account of the Great Flood 58, Chapter 3 The Civilization of Greece, 1000-400 B.C.E. Henry of Guise then planned an attack on all protestants. Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). It was one event in the series of civil wars between Roman Catholics and Huguenots that beset France in the late 16th century. C. The third round, France : Calvinists vs. Catholics Political Responses . [10], The court itself was extremely divided. Madame, the king refuses to involve himself in one war. [95] He concludes that the historical importance of the Massacre "lies not so much in the appalling tragedies involved as their demonstration of the power of sectarian passion to break down the barriers of civilisation, community and accepted morality". Enabling JavaScript in your browser will allow you to experience all the features of our site. Though no details of the meeting survive, Charles IX and his mother apparently made the decision to eliminate the Protestant leaders. At this time, in an age before mass media, "the pulpit remained probably the most effective means of mass communication".[84]. Fast Facts: St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre Event Name: St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre 33. Those who remained became increasingly radicalized. [58] Even Tsar Ivan the Terrible expressed horror at the carnage in a letter to the Emperor. 33. We are happy to offer free Achieve access in addition to the physical sample you have selected. The featured documents offer a rich array of sources on the conflict including royal edicts, popular songs, polemics, eyewitness accounts, memoirs, paintings, and engravings to enable students to explore the massacre, the nature of church-state relations, the moral responsibility of secular and religious authorities, and the origins and consequences of religious persecution and intolerance in this period. FROM A Venetian Ambassador's Report on the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre The struggle for supremacy in northern Italy, which marked the last half of the fif- teenth century, gave rise to a new form of diplomacy, including structures and pro- cedures that would be fundamental to relations among all modern states. With these words, the most popular preacher in Paris legitimised in advance the events of St. Bartholomew's Day". The St Bartholomew's Day Massacre is the setting for Tim Willocks' historical novel, The Twelve Children of Paris (Matthias Tannhauser Trilogy:2), published in 2013. AUGUST 24, 1572-ST. BARTHOLOMEW'S DAY by the Catholic calendar-is an . This was a massacre on Huguenots. Updates? [36], In the cities affected, the loss to the Huguenot communities after the massacres was numerically far larger than those actually killed; in the following weeks there were mass conversions to Catholicism, apparently in response to the threatening atmosphere for Huguenots in these cities. Though by no means unique, the bloodletting "was the worst of the century's religious massacres". Political Responses . Neither faith had a monopoly on cruelty and misguided fervour". In the Holy Innocents' Cemetery, on Sunday, 24, at noon, a hawthorn bush, that had withered for months, began to green again near an image of the Virgin. Franois, Duke of Montmorency and governor of Paris, was unable to control the disturbances in the city. [9] In the massacres of August, the relatives of the Gastines family were among the first to be killed by the mob. [34] In some cities the massacres were led by the mob, while the city authorities tried to suppress them, and in others small groups of soldiers and officials began rounding up Protestants with little mob involvement. The St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre King Philip II (1527-1598). Pope Gregory XIII himself refused to receive Charles de Maurevert, said to be the killer of Coligny, on the ground that he was a murderer.[53]. Inchbald kept the historical setting, but The Massacre, completed by February 1792, also reflected events in the recent French Revolution, though not the September Massacres of 1792, which coincided with its printing. Were sorry, but WorldCat does not work without JavaScript enabled. Protestant Resistance Theory: The Wake-Up Call for the French and their Neighbors, 1574 . 130, Chapter 4 The Greek World Expands, 400-150 B.C.E. By focusing on describing the political and religious context for the massacre at the, beginning, the author demonstrates the severity of the event. Note: this article incorporates material from the, James R. Smither, "The St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre and Images of Kingship in France: 15721574. One can also understand why, the day after the start of the massacre, Catherine de' Medici, through royal declaration of Charles IX, condemned the crimes, and threatened the Guise family with royal justice. For Le Monde, Youness Bousenna interviews Jrmie Foa, current Member in the School of Historical Studies, about his book on the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre:. The first round, Germany : Lutherans vs. Catholics 1. 9394, and Benedict (2004), p. 127, Knecht (2001), p. 368, though see Holt (2005), pp. He stayed in Paris for three days and made eleven speeches. Read online (or offline) with all the highlighting and notetaking tools you need to be successful in this course. He noted that the extra violence inflicted on many of the corpses "was not random at all, but patterned after the rites of the Catholic culture that had given birth to it". The St. Bartholomew's Day massacre and the events surrounding it were incorporated into D.W. Griffith's film Intolerance (1916). Few towns escaped the episodic violence and some suffered repeatedly from both sides. The second round, England : Anglicans vs. Catholics 2023 OCLC Domestic and international trademarks and/or service marks of OCLC, Inc. and its affiliates. [13] Thus, the massacre "marked the beginning of a new form of French Protestantism: one that was openly at war with the crown. The massacre began in the night of 2324 August 1572, the eve of the feast of Bartholomew the Apostle, two days after the attempted assassination of Admiral Gaspard de Coligny, the military and political leader of the Huguenots. [49], The French 18th-century historian Louis-Pierre Anquetil, in his Esprit de la Ligue of 1767, was among the first to begin impartial historical investigation, emphasizing the lack of premeditation (before the attempt on Coligny) in the massacre and that Catholic mob violence had a history of uncontrollable escalation. German leagues at war vs. Charles V The two leading Huguenots, Henry of Navarre and his cousin the Prince of Cond (respectively aged 19 and 20), were spared as they pledged to convert to Catholicism; both would eventually renounce their conversions when they managed to escape Paris. GIOVANNI MICHIEL FROMA Venetian Ambassador's Report on the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre The struggle for supremacyin northern Italy, which marked the last half of thefif- teenthcentury, gave rise to a new form of diplomacy, including structures and pro- cedures that wouldbe fundamental to relations amongall modern states. [60] Many Catholic authors were exultant in their praise of the king for his bold and decisive action (after regretfully abandoning a policy of meeting Huguenot demands as far as he could) against the supposed Huguenot coup, whose details were now fleshed out in officially sponsored works, though the larger mob massacres were somewhat deprecated: "[one] must excuse the people's fury moved by a laudable zeal which is difficult to restrain once it has been stirred up". It was in this context that the massacre came to be seen as a product of Machiavellianism, a view greatly influenced by the Huguenot Innocent Gentillet, who published his Discours contre Machievel in 1576, which was printed in ten editions in three languages over the next four years. The murder of thousands of French Protestants by Catholics in August 1572 influenced not only the subsequent course of Frances civil wars and state building, but also patterns of international alliance and long-standing cultural values across Europe. B. "[91], However Raymond Mentzer points out that Protestants "could be as bloodthirsty as Catholics. Civil wars across Europe Report by the merchants' provost (Aug. 23, 1572) -- 19. Ordinary lay Catholics were involved in the mass killings; they believed they were executing the wishes of the king and of God. Requiring Mark Twain described the massacre in "From the Manuscript of 'A Tramp Abroad' (1879): The French and the Comanches", an essay about "partly civilized races". The Edict of Boulogne (25 June, 1573) put an end to it, granting to all Huguenots amnesty for the past and liberty to worship in those three towns. "Holding a lit de justice, Charles declared that he had ordered the massacre in order to thwart a Huguenot plot against the royal family. On the contrary, our common love for Christ impels us to seek tirelessly the path of full unity."[98]. [8] The rise in food prices and the luxury displayed on the occasion of the royal wedding increased tensions among the common people. The Massacre of St. Bartholomew's Day, Aug. 24, 1572 As recorded by statesman and historian, De Thou (1553-1617), who was a witness to the events on St. Bartholomew Day as a youth. Soon afterward both sides prepared for a fourth civil war, which began before the end of the year. [14], Tensions were further raised when in May 1572 the news reached Paris that a French Huguenot army under Louis of Nassau had crossed from France to the Netherlandish province of Hainaut and captured the Catholic strongholds of Mons and Valenciennes (now in Belgium and France, respectively). He received his B.A. [39] Accurate figures for casualties have never been compiled,[40] and even in writings by modern historians there is a considerable range, though the more specialised the historian, the lower they tend to be. -It caused the Huguenots to flee France Catherine had not obtained Pope Gregory XIII's permission to celebrate this irregular marriage; consequently, the French prelates hesitated over which attitude to adopt. Here, he is relating the events leading up to the Massacre and the orders of the Queen of France, Catherine de'Medici. He describes how the religious divide, which gave the Huguenots different patterns of dress, eating and pastimes, as well as the obvious differences of religion and (very often) class, had become a social schism or cleavage. 1 Two . [citation needed] Elizabeth I of England's ambassador to France at that time, Sir Francis Walsingham, barely escaped with his life. [94], The historian H.G. B. motivations which lead to this savage action. Protestant countries were horrified at the events, and only the concentrated efforts of Catherine's ambassadors, including a special mission by Gondi, prevented the collapse of her policy of remaining on good terms with them. [93] At least one Huguenot was able to buy off his would-be murderers. Our editors will review what youve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. The homes and shops of Huguenots were pillaged and their occupants brutally murdered; many bodies were thrown into the Seine. The Venetian Senate, Letter to the Venetian Ambassadors in France, 1572 . [49], The Politiques, those Catholics who placed national unity above sectarian interests, were horrified, but many Catholics inside and outside France initially regarded the massacres as deliverance from an imminent Huguenot coup d'etat. On August 26, the king and court established the official version of events by going to the Paris Parlement. Other theories about who was ultimately responsible for the attack centre on three candidates: The attempted assassination of Coligny triggered the crisis that led to the massacre. 3. 1) Funds must be available to cover the check value and the bank's processing fee 2) The Cardholder can dispute a. The dates are in Garrison, p. 139, who adds, Holt (2005 ed. "[28] A jubilee celebration, including a procession, was then held, while the killings continued in parts of the city. All the best people took a hand in it, the King and the Queen Mother included."[102]. [80] Apart from Anjou, the others were all Italian advisors at the French court. Don't leave a single one alive to reproach me! Shortly before dawn on August 24 the bell of Saint-Germain-lAuxerrois began to toll and the massacre began. Richard Verstegan, Horrible Cruelties of the Huguenots in France, 1587 . The king's Swiss mercenaries were given the task of killing a list of leading Protestants. Catherine de Medici, the mother of Charles, feared Admiral Colignys growing influence over her son. [56] Moderate French Catholics also began to wonder whether religious uniformity was worth the price of such bloodshed and the ranks of the Politiques began to swell. On the evening of 23 August, Catherine went to see the king to discuss the crisis. While every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. [50] The pope ordered a Te Deum to be sung as a special thanksgiving (a practice continued for many years after) and had a medal struck with the motto Ugonottorum strages 1572 (Latin: "Overthrow (or slaughter) of the Huguenots 1572") showing an angel bearing a cross and a sword before which are the felled Protestants. ("Emond" or "Edmond"). [45] At the higher end are total figures of up to 20,000,[46] or 30,000 in total, from "a contemporary, non-partisan guesstimate" quoted by the historians Felipe Fernndez-Armesto and D. Power Point Historian Jrmie Foa offers a very unique view of the 1572 massacres in his work entitled Tous ceux qui tombent: visages du massacre de la Saint-Barthlemy [All that fall: faces of the St. Bartholomew's day massacre]. 34. She, supposed his words had different meanings that alluded to his plan to stir up new storms and. According to Thierry Wanegffelen, the member of the royal family with the most responsibility in this affair is Henry, Duke of Anjou, the king's ambitious younger brother. 136, Alexander the Great and the Limits of Conquest 150, Hellenistic Architecture in the Near East (c. 175 C.E.) [82][pageneeded]. Charles IX was thus forced to head off the potential riot, which was the work of the Guises, the city militia and the common people. Please enable JavaScript on your browser. Essay Question, Category A Giovanni Michiel, "A Venetian Ambassador's Report on the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre," Perspectives From the Past, pp 484-486.1) After reading Michiel's account, who do you think who is responsible for the St. Ignatius of Loyola, from The Spiritual Exercises Lincoln, chapter 6, pp. This serial is missing from the BBC archives and survives only in audio form. 5, From Lamentation over the Destruction of Sumer and Urim 6, Letters of Royal Women of the Old Babylonian Period 27, Chapter 2 Peoples, Cods, and Empires, 1700-500 B.C.E. 1st Edition ISBN: 9780547034997 Dahia Ibo Shabaka, Larry S. Krieger, Linda Black, Phillip C. Naylor, Roger B. Beck. Cavalli, the Venetian Ambassador, maintained in his report that the king held out for an hour and a half, finally yielding because of Catherine's threat to leave France and the fear that his brother, the Duke of Anjou, might be named captain-general of the Catholics. Holt speculated this entailed "between two and three dozen noblemen" who were still in Paris. To explain the massacre, Charles, assuming responsibility for it, claimed that there had been a Huguenot plot against the crown. Ignatius of Loyola (1491-1556) Henry IV (king of France, 1589-1610) The St. Bartholomew's Day massacre ( French: Massacre de la Saint-Barthlemy) in 1572 was a targeted group of assassinations and a wave of Catholic mob violence directed against the Huguenots (French Calvinist Protestants) during the French Wars of Religion. [21] Other historians are reluctant to speculate on the composition or size of the group of leaders targeted at this point, beyond the few obvious heads. Review and, 1.Which printmaking process is the most direct for translating the gestures of the hand? Another novel depicting this massacre is Queen Jezebel, by Jean Plaidy (1953). Moreover seven of them shared a previous experience [they] had actually been taken over by Protestant minorities during the first civil war"[29], In several cases the Catholic party in the city believed they had received orders from the king to begin the massacre, some conveyed by visitors to the city, and in other cases apparently coming from a local nobleman or his agent. Huguenots in Rouen, Lyon, Bourges, Orlans, and Bordeaux were among the victims. Mons; Sommires; Sancerre; La Rochelle, War of the Three Henrys (158589) Coutras; Vimory; Day of the Barricades, Succession of Henry IV of France (158994) Body counts relating to other payments are computed from this. [72] In fact there is little trace of Machiavelli in French writings before the massacre, and not very much after, until Gentillet's own book, but this concept was seized upon by many contemporaries, and played a crucial part in setting the long-lasting popular concept of Machiavellianism. Admiral Gaspard II de Coligny, a Huguenot leader, supported a war in the Low Countries against Spain as a means to prevent a resumption of civil war, a plan that the French king, Charles IX, was coming to approve in the summer of 1572. WorldCat is the worlds largest library catalog, helping you find library materials online. Belonging to different religious traditions must not constitute today a source of opposition and tension. Also, in his biography The World of Christopher Marlowe, David Riggs claims the incident remained with the playwright, and massacres are incorporated into the final acts of three of his early plays, 1 and 2 Tamburlaine and The Jew of Malta see above for Marlowe and Machiavellism. They were ordered to shut the city gates and arm the citizenry to prevent any attempt at a Protestant uprising. 1) Purchase valued. After the wedding of Catholic Marguerite de Valois and Huguenot Henry de Navarre on August 18 of 1572,[17] Coligny and the leading Huguenots remained in Paris to discuss some outstanding grievances about the Peace of St. Germain with the king. He contacted the Parisian authorities and another ambitious young man, running out of authority and power, Duke Henri de Guise (whose uncle, the clear-sighted Charles, cardinal of Lorraine, was then detained in Rome). "Many Protestant houses were burned, invoking the traditional purification by fire of all heretics. However, in a more recent work than his history of the period, Holt concludes: "The ringleaders of the conspiracy appear to have been a group of four men: Henry, duke of Anjou; Chancellor Birague; the duke of Nevers, and the comte de Retz" (Gondi). It depicts the massacre as having been instigated by Catherine de' Medici for both religious and political reasons, and authorised by a weak-willed and easily influenced Charles IX.[103].
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