(2009, 2011, 2014). J. The gender pay gap refers to the average difference in mens and womens earnings, and is typically adjusted for hours worked. Observers (do not) produce a just gender pay gap with their ratings. 30, 219232. First, all interviews in the SOEP-Pretest are programmed as computer-assisted personal interviews, in contrast to the paper and pencil questionnaires mostly used in the main survey. WebConflict Theory. (2011). WebThis research report explores the gender pay gap, which is defined as the difference between the average hourly pay of men and women. WebGender wage gap is the difference in earnings between men and women and the difference has been an ongoing problem in the U.S. labor force. 52, 862873. The gender wage gap refers to the difference in earnings between women and men. Marketing Research Methods in SAS. According to research, women earn only 76% of what men are paid for doing the same task, Women are generally considered as the weak gender and are supposed to be submissive to their, husbands. Die wirtschaftliche und soziale Lage der Studierenden in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 2009. In the context of gender, conflict theory argues that gender is best understood as men attempting to maintain power and privilege to the detriment of women. doi: 10.1006/ssre.1996.0010, Gatskova, K. (2013). 7, 227244. The respondents' justice judgments of gross earnings were obtained using two different rating procedures. The survey was conducted by a research institution with professional interviewers. Stratificat. The experienced structural inequalities between men and women affect justice attitudes toward gender. Development of theory History Moreover, it shows again high consistency of evaluations of the population samples. Each respondent rated several vignettes; therefore, the data have a multi-level structure. Jasso, G. (1978). This is a mandatory requirement to investigate gender bias introduced by the respondents. Table 1 shows the dimensions and levels used for the analyses. Globally, the gender pay gap stands at 16 per cent, meaning women workers earn an average of 84 per cent of what men earn. 189, 46. doi: 10.2139/ssrn.1413792, Sauer, C., Auspurg, K., Hinz, T., Liebig, S., and Schupp, J. WebThe Gender Conflict theory is essentially Marxist in nature, where the male figures are positioned at the upper echelon and the female figures are at the lower part. Theories of Gender: Crash Course Sociology doi: 10.1002/hec.1197, PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar. pay The graph highlights the different evaluation patterns between participants of the student sample and those of the two population samples. WebThe unadjusted gender pay gap is defined as the difference of the average gross earnings of men and women divided by the average gross earnings of men. (1982). I 've only covered a few of the issues that it creates, and there are many more. Jasso and Wegener (1997) specify that the just reward depends on reward-relevant factors x, their weights and their combination. The contribution of this paper is to apply the theoretical explanations offered by Berger et al. To illustrate the differences in evaluations between samples and male and female respondents the transformed b-coefficients estimated in Equation (5) will be presented in Figure 3. Figure 2. Homans, G. C. (1974). Experience-based gender bias questions the appropriateness of the accountability principle usually used to identify the fairness of individual negotiations. Male and female observers assigned higher just earnings to male recipients. Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany. Inequality lasts because those who control the unbalanced portion of societys supplies; forcefully defend their benefits. 175. Additionally, the interaction effects were estimated separately for male and female respondents. The contemporary, Gender Wage Inequality And Conflict Theory. Additionally, the study assumes that there are differences between people living in federal states with high and low gender inequality. WebIntro ( 0:55) To talk about why we have gender in the first place we need to go back to the three theories that sociology is built on: Structural-Functional Theory, Symbolic Interaction Theory, and Social Conflict Theory. This goal is not difficult to attain, provided we have cooperation between all people to achieve it., Males are associated with success, and power; which is the image that is associated with Wall Street. Available online at: https://web.archive.org/web/20120203131554/http://www.statistik.rlp.de/wirtschaft/verdienste-und-arbeitskosten/einzelansicht/archive/2010/june/article/gender-pay-gapldquo-im-jahr-2009-verdienten-frauen-22-prozent-weniger-als-maumlnner/, Schomaker, C. (2010b). Rev. Second, whereas the main survey is a study of private households, the SOEP-Pretest is a sample of individuals. - Argument in Support of Social Constructionism, 11. Identify which perspectives use a macrolevel or a microlevel of analysis. The second model in Table 6 provides the estimates for population sample 1. This research has limitations. Sociol. Who should get what? The gender gap pay is an analysis of the stratification of the intersection based on gender. The university student survey (hereafter the student sample) was conducted during the summer term in 2008. In the student sample and population sample 1, respondents were asked to evaluate each vignette via an 11-point rating scale. The effect of average gross earnings is significantly negative, meaning that respondents living in federal states with high average earnings evaluated the gross earnings described in the vignettes more often as unjustly low compared to those respondents living in federal states with lower average earnings. This paper only focuses on five dimensions that were included in all studies5. In a first step, I therefore investigate whether gender biases still differ between students and the general population, including additional analysis by age and educational groups, and in a second step, I analyze whether differences can be detected between employees working in German federal states with more or less gender inequality. doi: 10.1007/s11211-015-0256-4, Liebig, S., Sauer, C., and Schupp, J. The Gender Pay Gap: What It Is and Why It Matters - ThoughtCo On, many occasions, women are paid lower wages, even if the task is done the same as that of men. While students are undoubtedly socialized in a gender-unequal society and gender inequalities also exist at universities, the gender bias based on daily experiences should at least be lower than in other subpopulations. 25 Jahre Sozio-oekonomisches Panel - ein Infrastrukturprojekt der empirischen Sozial- und Wirtschaftsforschung in Deutschland. A just gender pay gap? Gap KZfSS Klner Zeitschrift fr Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie 63, 3359. Non-reflexive judgments, on the other hand, are not affected by conflicts of justice perceptions and individuals' own interests because people judge rewards by which they are not affected (especially when people evaluate fictitious others, as is the case in factorial survey studies). Am. Social order is kept by power and control; those with wealth and power try to hold on to it; mainly by overpowering the poor and powerless. Rev. Distributive justice theories share the basic idea that similar individuals, based on socially defined and valued characteristics, expect similar rewards or earnings. In the student sample, the effect of gender on the justice evaluation is insignificant, which indicates that minor importance is attached to this dimension. Additional analyses with all respondentsnot restricted to employed respondentssimilar to those presented in Table 8 revealed mixed results. Talking about men, it is clearly seen that in todays world they held dominant and much higher positions than women. Norwegian Institute for Social Research (ISF), Norway, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, United States. One must bear in mind that students are not only embedded in the structural context university but are also affected by socially shared attitudes toward gender in other contexts of social life. Berger, J., Fisek, H. M., Norman, R. Z., and Wagner, D. G. (1985). Gender is a categorical difference between recipients. In population sample 2, a constant number of dimensions (10) and vignettes (24) was presented. WebThe Conflict Theory examines societal power structures and the unequal distribution of resources through the lens of this theoretical perspective. Table 9. In thecontextof gender, conflict theory argues that gender is best understood as men attempting to maintain power and privilege to the detriment of women. doi: 10.1111/j.0735-2751.2004.00227.x, Younts, C. W., and Mueller, C. W. (2001). ^In the computer-assisted personal interviews, additional information was collected about the interviewer, e.g., work experience and training attendance, and the interview situations in interviewer questionnaires after each interview. Engels suggested that the same owner-worker relationship seen in the labor force could also be seen in the household, with women assuming the role of the proletariat. However, following the work of Berger et al. Therefore, they also experience gender inequalities in other contexts. In sum, age, education, occupation, and the associated earnings provided information on the recipients that all respondents used in their justice evaluation. If men are more likely to be resource-rich and women are more likely to be resource-poor, observers attach higher status to male recipients and assign higher earnings to the high-status group even though the recipients do not differ in other characteristics. Three factorial survey studies on justice evaluations of earnings for male an female employees, in SFB 882 Working Paper Series 29. Early formulations of justice evaluation processes identified comparisons as the key mechanism how actors assess the justice or injustice of their rewards. doi: 10.1007/s11211-013-0182-2, Schomaker, C. (2010a). The first model only considers respondents under the age of thirty; the second model restricts the analysis sample to respondents with a higher secondary school degree. Bearing the limitations of this study in mind, the findings provide important insights for sociological justice research, as they show how inequalities influence the justice evaluations of people. Die Bewertung von Erwerbseinkommen Methodische und inhaltliche Analysen zu einer Vignettenstudie im Rahmen des SOEP-Pretest 2008. SOEP Testerhebung 2008: Persnlichkeit, Gerechtigkeitsempfinden und Alltagsstimmung. Surv. Distributive justice attitudes in ukraine: need, desert or social minimum? Beliefs about inequality and perceptions of distributive justice. Social sciences students are an example of a more gender-equal subpopulation. The analysis sample was restricted to those respondents who were full-time employed because gender pay gaps were available only for full-time employees, so they directly experienced the difference in their daily interactions. Am. SOEPpaper No. Ducharme, J. The findings indicate that actual inequalities between men and women influence the gender bias in justice evaluations. Lang, V., and Gro, M. (2020). Technical report, TNS Infratest Sozialforschung, Mnchen. You can help correct errors and omissions. Because in Germany, as in many other countries, the gender differences are remarkably high (more on this below), it is likely that gender is perceived as a status characteristic that is attached to higher earnings for men. 45, 168193. Empirically, this is the first study that compares student samples and population samples using similar tools to detect gender biases that allow for the testing of differences for the first time. (1985) distinguish three types of referential structures: categorical referential structures are based on who you are, ability referential structures are based on what you can do, and performance-outcome referential structures are based on what you have done. Reward expectations theory implies that categorical, ability and performance-outcome characteristics may together determine reward expectations and therefore justice evaluations. The main differences are that respondents in general samples are on average older and less well educated. Evaluations differ between male and female students (p = 0.026) but do not differ in population sample 1 (p = 0.406) and population sample 2 (p = 0.360). 5. doi: 10.2307/2095476. Assuming this evaluation process, the justice evaluation stated in Equations (1) and (2) contains three types of characteristics: categorical variables, abilities and inputs. Wage Gap We have this belief as a society that men are better than women. Thus, status characteristics that refer to categorical differences, abilities or inputs are relevant for the observer to estimate the just earnings C of a recipient. Am. Q. doi: 10.2307/2657396, Keywords: justice evaluations, just gender pay gap, gender inequalities, status beliefs, factorial survey, German-Germany, Citation: Sauer C (2020) Gender Bias in Justice Evaluations of Earnings: Evidence From Three Survey Experiments. There are methods reports available that provide additional information on the data used (Sauer et al., 2009, 2011, 2014). Sociol. Table 8. Models 4 to 6 show the coefficients for population sample 2. A second version of this paper has been part of my dissertation (Sauer, 2014b) and is available online as a discussion paper (Sauer, 2014a). Status characteristics divide trait carriers into status-high and status-low individuals and entitle status-high individuals to receive higher rewards. This means that people compare the rewards of specific people (either themselves in reflexive judgments or others in non-reflexive judgments) to a generalized other that represents a typical other for the specific comparison, e.g., a car mechanic or a teacher at a public school. Evaluators perceive justice if this condition is met, and they perceive injustice (either over-reward or under-reward) if this condition is not met because expectations are violated. The analysis of full-time employees resembled the findings of the complete population sample. Women's and Gender's Studies as an Academic Discipline - Student Specific Content Learning Outcomes, 3. The application of factorial surveys in general population samples: the effects of respondent age and education on response times and response consistency. Sociol. The gender pay gap in a federal state did not directly affect the justice evaluations. Adams, J. S. (1965). Soc. Table 5 provides the median earnings and gender pay gaps in 2009 for each state separately. How Two Generals Led Sudan to the Brink of Civil War In 2022, women earned an average of 82% of what men earned, according to a new Pew Research Center analysis of median hourly earnings of both full- and part-time workers. Health Econ. Soc. The hypothesis refers to the question of the existence of a just gender pay gap. Methods for empirical justice analysis: part 1. The vignettes of the student sample and population sample 1 were additionally presented in random order for each respondent. doi: 10.1086/226826. Occupation was transformed into a metric scale using the Standard International Occupational Prestige Scale (SIOPS; Ganzeboom and Treiman, 1996). DFG Research Center (SFB) 882 From Heterogeneities to Inequalities (Bielefeld University). Nuremberg: Federal Employment Agency. This involves examining your own payroll data for evidence of a gender pay gap, and making recommendations to senior management about ways to lower gender barriers in recruitment, hiring, pay and promotion before they arise as WebAccording to conflict theory, society is a struggle for dominance among social groups (like women versus men) that compete for scarce resources. Soc. Sociol. These designs ensure that the influence of vignette dimensions and interaction terms are mutually uncorrelated. Making regression tables simplified. In 2022, women earned an average of 82% of what men earned, according to a new Pew Research Center analysis of median hourly earnings of both full- and part-time workers.
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